1 //: Since we're tagging operands with their types, let's start checking these
  2 //: operand types for each instruction.
  3 
  4 :(scenario check_missing_imm8_operand)
  5 % Hide_errors = true;
  6 == 0x1
  7 cd  # int ??
  8 +error: 'cd' (software interrupt): missing imm8 operand
  9 
 10 :(before "Pack Operands(segment code)")
 11 check_operands(code);
 12 if (trace_contains_errors()) return;
 13 
 14 :(code)
 15 void check_operands(const segment& code) {
 16   trace(99, "transform") << "-- check operands" << end();
 17   for (int i = 0;  i < SIZE(code.lines);  ++i) {
 18     check_operands(code.lines.at(i));
 19     if (trace_contains_errors()) return;  // stop at the first mal-formed instruction
 20   }
 21 }
 22 
 23 void check_operands(const line& inst) {
 24   word op = preprocess_op(inst.words.at(0));
 25   if (op.data == "0f") {
 26     check_operands_0f(inst);
 27     return;
 28   }
 29   if (op.data == "f3") {
 30     check_operands_f3(inst);
 31     return;
 32   }
 33   check_operands(inst, op);
 34 }
 35 
 36 word preprocess_op(word/*copy*/ op) {
 37   op.data = tolower(op.data.c_str());
 38   // opcodes can't be negative
 39   if (starts_with(op.data, "0x"))
 40     op.data = op.data.substr(2);
 41   if (SIZE(op.data) == 1)
 42     op.data = string("0")+op.data;
 43   return op;
 44 }
 45 
 46 void test_preprocess_op() {
 47   word w1;  w1.data = "0xf";
 48   word w2;  w2.data = "0f";
 49   CHECK_EQ(preprocess_op(w1).data, preprocess_op(w2).data);
 50 }
 51 
 52 //: To check the operands for an opcode, we'll track the permitted operands
 53 //: for each supported opcode in a bitvector. That way we can often compute the
 54 //: bitvector for each instruction's operands and compare it with the expected.
 55 
 56 :(before "End Types")
 57 enum operand_type {
 58   // start from the least significant bit
 59   MODRM,  // more complex, may also involve disp8 or disp32
 60   SUBOP,
 61   DISP8,
 62   DISP16,
 63   DISP32,
 64   IMM8,
 65   IMM32,
 66   NUM_OPERAND_TYPES
 67 };
 68 :(before "End Globals")
 69 vector<string> Operand_type_name;
 70 map<string, operand_type> Operand_type;
 71 :(before "End One-time Setup")
 72 init_op_types();
 73 :(code)
 74 void init_op_types() {
 75   assert(NUM_OPERAND_TYPES <= /*bits in a uint8_t*/8);
 76   Operand_type_name.resize(NUM_OPERAND_TYPES);
 77   #define DEF(type) Operand_type_name.at(type) = tolower(#type), put(Operand_type, tolower(#type), type);
 78   DEF(MODRM);
 79   DEF(SUBOP);
 80   DEF(DISP8);
 81   DEF(DISP16);
 82   DEF(DISP32);
 83   DEF(IMM8);
 84   DEF(IMM32);
 85   #undef DEF
 86 }
 87 
 88 :(before "End Globals")
 89 map</*op*/string, /*bitvector*/uint8_t> Permitted_operands;
 90 const uint8_t INVALID_OPERANDS = 0xff;  // no instruction uses all the operand types
 91 :(before "End One-time Setup")
 92 init_permitted_operands();
 93 :(code)
 94 void init_permitted_operands() {
 95   //// Class A: just op, no operands
 96   // halt
 97   put(Permitted_operands, "f4", 0x00);
 98   // inc
 99   put(Permitted_operands, "40", 0x00);
100   put(Permitted_operands, "41", 0x00);
101   put(Permitted_operands, "42", 0x00);
102   put(Permitted_operands, "43", 0x00);
103   put(Permitted_operands, "44", 0x00);
104   put(Permitted_operands, "45", 0x00);
105   put(Permitted_operands, "46", 0x00);
106   put(Permitted_operands, "47", 0x00);
107   // dec
108   put(Permitted_operands, "48", 0x00);
109   put(Permitted_operands, "49", 0x00);
110   put(Permitted_operands, "4a", 0x00);
111   put(Permitted_operands, "4b", 0x00);
112   put(Permitted_operands, "4c", 0x00);
113   put(Permitted_operands, "4d", 0x00);
114   put(Permitted_operands, "4e", 0x00);
115   put(Permitted_operands, "4f", 0x00);
116   // push
117   put(Permitted_operands, "50", 0x00);
118   put(Permitted_operands, "51", 0x00);
119   put(Permitted_operands, "52", 0x00);
120   put(Permitted_operands, "53", 0x00);
121   put(Permitted_operands, "54", 0x00);
122   put(Permitted_operands, "55", 0x00);
123   put(Permitted_operands, "56", 0x00);
124   put(Permitted_operands, "57", 0x00);
125   // pop
126   put(Permitted_operands, "58", 0x00);
127   put(Permitted_operands, "59", 0x00);
128   put(Permitted_operands, "5a", 0x00);
129   put(Permitted_operands, "5b", 0x00);
130   put(Permitted_operands, "5c", 0x00);
131   put(Permitted_operands, "5d", 0x00);
132   put(Permitted_operands, "5e", 0x00);
133   put(Permitted_operands, "5f", 0x00);
134   // return
135   put(Permitted_operands, "c3", 0x00);
136 
137   //// Class B: just op and disp8
138   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
139   //  0     0     0      |0       1     0     0
140 
141   // jump
142   put(Permitted_operands, "eb", 0x04);
143   put(Permitted_operands, "74", 0x04);
144   put(Permitted_operands, "75", 0x04);
145   put(Permitted_operands, "7c", 0x04);
146   put(Permitted_operands, "7d", 0x04);
147   put(Permitted_operands, "7e", 0x04);
148   put(Permitted_operands, "7f", 0x04);
149 
150   //// Class D: just op and disp32
151   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
152   //  0     0     1      |0       0     0     0
153   put(Permitted_operands, "e8", 0x10);  // call
154   put(Permitted_operands, "e9", 0x10);  // jump
155 
156   //// Class E: just op and imm8
157   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
158   //  0     1     0      |0       0     0     0
159   put(Permitted_operands, "cd", 0x20);  // software interrupt
160 
161   //// Class F: just op and imm32
162   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
163   //  1     0     0      |0       0     0     0
164   put(Permitted_operands, "05", 0x40);  // add
165   put(Permitted_operands, "2d", 0x40);  // subtract
166   put(Permitted_operands, "25", 0x40);  // and
167   put(Permitted_operands, "0d", 0x40);  // or
168   put(Permitted_operands, "35", 0x40);  // xor
169   put(Permitted_operands, "3d", 0x40);  // compare
170   put(Permitted_operands, "68", 0x40);  // push
171   // copy
172   put(Permitted_operands, "b8", 0x40);
173   put(Permitted_operands, "b9", 0x40);
174   put(Permitted_operands, "ba", 0x40);
175   put(Permitted_operands, "bb", 0x40);
176   put(Permitted_operands, "bc", 0x40);
177   put(Permitted_operands, "bd", 0x40);
178   put(Permitted_operands, "be", 0x40);
179   put(Permitted_operands, "bf", 0x40);
180 
181   //// Class M: using ModR/M byte
182   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
183   //  0     0     0      |0       0     0     1
184 
185   // add
186   put(Permitted_operands, "01", 0x01);
187   put(Permitted_operands, "03", 0x01);
188   // subtract
189   put(Permitted_operands, "29", 0x01);
190   put(Permitted_operands, "2b", 0x01);
191   // and
192   put(Permitted_operands, "21", 0x01);
193   put(Permitted_operands, "23", 0x01);
194   // or
195   put(Permitted_operands, "09", 0x01);
196   put(Permitted_operands, "0b", 0x01);
197   // xor
198   put(Permitted_operands, "31", 0x01);
199   put(Permitted_operands, "33", 0x01);
200   // compare
201   put(Permitted_operands, "39", 0x01);
202   put(Permitted_operands, "3b", 0x01);
203   // copy
204   put(Permitted_operands, "88", 0x01);
205   put(Permitted_operands, "89", 0x01);
206   put(Permitted_operands, "8a", 0x01);
207   put(Permitted_operands, "8b", 0x01);
208   // swap
209   put(Permitted_operands, "87", 0x01);
210   // copy address (lea)
211   put(Permitted_operands, "8d", 0x01);
212   // pop
213   put(Permitted_operands, "8f", 0x01);
214 
215   //// Class O: op, ModR/M and subop (not r32)
216   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
217   //  0     0     0      |0       0     1     1
218   put(Permitted_operands, "f7", 0x03);  // test/not/mul/div
219   put(Permitted_operands, "ff", 0x03);  // jump/push/call
220 
221   //// Class N: op, ModR/M and imm32
222   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
223   //  1     0     0      |0       0     0     1
224   put(Permitted_operands, "c7", 0x41);  // copy
225 
226   //// Class P: op, ModR/M, subop (not r32) and imm32
227   //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
228   //  1     0     0      |0       0     1     1
229   put(Permitted_operands, "81", 0x43);  // combine
230 
231   // End Init Permitted Operands
232 }
233 
234 :(code)
235 #define HAS(bitvector, bit)  ((bitvector) & (1 << (bit)))
236 #define SET(bitvector, bit)  ((bitvector) | (1 << (bit)))
237 #define CLEAR(bitvector, bit)  ((bitvector) & (~(1 << (bit))))
238 
239 void check_operands(const line& inst, const word& op) {
240   if (!is_hex_byte(op)) return;
241   uint8_t expected_bitvector = get(Permitted_operands, op.data);
242   if (HAS(expected_bitvector, MODRM)) {
243     check_operands_modrm(inst, op);
244     compare_bitvector_modrm(inst, expected_bitvector, op);
245   }
246   else {
247     compare_bitvector(inst, expected_bitvector, op);
248   }
249 }
250 
251 //: Many instructions can be checked just by comparing bitvectors.
252 
253 void compare_bitvector(const line& inst, uint8_t expected, const word& op) {
254   if (all_hex_bytes(inst) && has_operands(inst)) return;  // deliberately programming in raw hex; we'll raise a warning elsewhere
255   uint8_t bitvector = compute_operand_bitvector(inst);
256   if (trace_contains_errors()) return;  // duplicate operand type
257   if (bitvector == expected) return;  // all good with this instruction
258   for (int i = 0;  i < NUM_OPERAND_TYPES;  ++i, bitvector >>= 1, expected >>= 1) {
259 //?     cerr << "comparing " << HEXBYTE << NUM(bitvector) << " with " << NUM(expected) << '\n';
260     if ((bitvector & 0x1) == (expected & 0x1)) continue;  // all good with this operand
261     const string& optype = Operand_type_name.at(i);
262     if ((bitvector & 0x1) > (expected & 0x1))
263       raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": unexpected " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
264     else
265       raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": missing " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
266     // continue giving all errors for a single instruction
267   }
268   // ignore settings in any unused bits
269 }
270 
271 string maybe_name(const word& op) {
272   if (!is_hex_byte(op)) return "";
273   if (!contains_key(Name, op.data)) return "";
274   // strip stuff in parens from the name
275   const string& s = get(Name, op.data);
276   return " ("+s.substr(0, s.find(" ("))+')';
277 }
278 
279 uint32_t compute_operand_bitvector(const line& inst) {
280   uint32_t bitvector = 0;
281   for (int i = /*skip op*/1;  i < SIZE(inst.words);  ++i) {
282     bitvector = bitvector | bitvector_for_operand(inst.words.at(i));
283     if (trace_contains_errors()) return INVALID_OPERANDS;  // duplicate operand type
284   }
285   return bitvector;
286 }
287 
288 bool has_operands(const line& inst) {
289   return SIZE(inst.words) > first_operand(inst);
290 }
291 
292 int first_operand(const line& inst) {
293   if (inst.words.at(0).data == "0f") return 2;
294   if (inst.words.at(0).data == "f2" || inst.words.at(0).data == "f3") {
295     if (inst.words.at(1).data == "0f")
296       return 3;
297     else
298       return 2;
299   }
300   return 1;
301 }
302 
303 // Scan the metadata of 'w' and return the bit corresponding to any operand type.
304 // Also raise an error if metadata contains multiple operand types.
305 uint32_t bitvector_for_operand(const word& w) {
306   uint32_t bv = 0;
307   bool found = false;
308   for (int i = 0;  i < SIZE(w.metadata);  ++i) {
309     const string& curr = w.metadata.at(i);
310     if (!contains_key(Operand_type, curr)) continue;  // ignore unrecognized metadata
311     if (found) {
312       raise << "'" << w.original << "' has conflicting operand types; it should have only one\n" << end();
313       return INVALID_OPERANDS;
314     }
315     bv = (1 << get(Operand_type, curr));
316     found = true;
317   }
318   return bv;
319 }
320 
321 :(scenario conflicting_operand_type)
322 % Hide_errors = true;
323 == 0x1
324 cd/software-interrupt 80/imm8/imm32
325 +error: '80/imm8/imm32' has conflicting operand types; it should have only one
326 
327 //: Instructions computing effective addresses have more complex rules, so
328 //: we'll hard-code a common set of instruction-decoding rules.
329 
330 :(scenario check_missing_mod_operand)
331 % Hide_errors = true;
332 == 0x1
333 81 0/add/subop       3/rm32/ebx 1/imm32
334 +error: '81 0/add/subop 3/rm32/ebx 1/imm32' (combine rm32 with imm32 based on subop): missing mod operand
335 
336 :(code)
337 void check_operands_modrm(const line& inst, const word& op) {
338   if (all_hex_bytes(inst)) return;  // deliberately programming in raw hex; we'll raise a warning elsewhere
339   check_operand_metadata_present(inst, "mod", op);
340   check_operand_metadata_present(inst, "rm32", op);
341   // no check for r32; some instructions don't use it; just assume it's 0 if missing
342   if (op.data == "81" || op.data == "8f" || op.data == "ff") {  // keep sync'd with 'help subop'
343     check_operand_metadata_present(inst, "subop", op);
344     check_operand_metadata_absent(inst, "r32", op, "should be replaced by subop");
345   }
346   if (trace_contains_errors()) return;
347   if (metadata(inst, "rm32").data != "4") return;
348   // SIB byte checks
349   uint8_t mod = hex_byte(metadata(inst, "mod").data);
350   if (mod != /*direct*/3) {
351     check_operand_metadata_present(inst, "base", op);
352     check_operand_metadata_present(inst, "index", op);  // otherwise why go to SIB?
353   }
354   else {
355     check_operand_metadata_absent(inst, "base", op, "direct mode");
356     check_operand_metadata_absent(inst, "index", op, "direct mode");
357   }
358   // no check for scale; 0 (2**0 = 1) by default
359 }
360 
361 // same as compare_bitvector, with a couple of exceptions for modrm-based instructions
362 //   exception 1: ignore modrm bit since we already checked it above
363 //   exception 2: modrm instructions can use a displacement on occasion
364 void compare_bitvector_modrm(const line& inst, uint8_t expected, const word& op) {
365   if (all_hex_bytes(inst) && has_operands(inst)) return;  // deliberately programming in raw hex; we'll raise a warning elsewhere
366   uint8_t bitvector = compute_operand_bitvector(inst);
367   if (trace_contains_errors()) return;  // duplicate operand type
368   expected = CLEAR(expected, MODRM);  // exception 1
369   if (bitvector == expected) return;  // all good with this instruction
370   for (int i = 0;  i < NUM_OPERAND_TYPES;  ++i, bitvector >>= 1, expected >>= 1) {
371 //?     cerr << "comparing for modrm " << HEXBYTE << NUM(bitvector) << " with " << NUM(expected) << '\n';
372     if ((bitvector & 0x1) == (expected & 0x1)) continue;  // all good with this operand
373     const string& optype = Operand_type_name.at(i);
374     if (i == DISP8) {
375       int32_t mod = parse_int(metadata(inst, "mod").data);
376       if (mod != 1)
377         raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": unexpected " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
378       continue;  // exception 2
379     }
380     if (i == DISP32) {
381       int32_t mod = parse_int(metadata(inst, "mod").data);
382       int32_t rm32 = parse_int(metadata(inst, "rm32").data);
383       if (mod == 0 && rm32 == 5)
384         ;  // ok: special-case for loading address from disp32
385       else if (mod != 2)
386         raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": unexpected " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
387       continue;  // exception 2
388     }
389     if ((bitvector & 0x1) > (expected & 0x1))
390       raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": unexpected " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
391     else
392       raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": missing " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
393     // continue giving all errors for a single instruction
394   }
395   // ignore settings in any unused bits
396 }
397 
398 void check_operand_metadata_present(const line& inst, const string& type, const word& op) {
399   if (!has_operand_metadata(inst, type))
400     raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": missing " << type << " operand\n" << end();
401 }
402 
403 void check_operand_metadata_absent(const line& inst, const string& type, const word& op, const string& msg) {
404   if (has_operand_metadata(inst, type))
405     raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name(op) << ": unexpected " << type << " operand (" << msg << ")\n" << end();
406 }
407 
408 :(scenarios transform)
409 :(scenario modrm_with_displacement)
410 % Reg[EAX].u = 0x1;
411 == 0x1
412 # just avoid null pointer
413 8b/copy 1/mod/lookup+disp8 0/rm32/EAX 2/r32/EDX 4/disp8  # copy *(EAX+4) to EDX
414 $error: 0
415 :(scenarios run)
416 
417 :(scenario conflicting_operands_in_modrm_instruction)
418 % Hide_errors = true;
419 == 0x1
420 01/add 0/mod 3/mod
421 +error: '01/add 0/mod 3/mod' has conflicting mod operands
422 
423 :(scenario conflicting_operand_type_modrm)
424 % Hide_errors = true;
425 == 0x1
426 01/add 0/mod 3/rm32/r32
427 +error: '3/rm32/r32' has conflicting operand types; it should have only one
428 
429 :(scenario check_missing_rm32_operand)
430 % Hide_errors = true;
431 == 0x1
432 81 0/add/subop 0/mod            1/imm32
433 +error: '81 0/add/subop 0/mod 1/imm32' (combine rm32 with imm32 based on subop): missing rm32 operand
434 
435 :(scenario check_missing_subop_operand)
436 % Hide_errors = true;
437 == 0x1
438 81             0/mod 3/rm32/ebx 1/imm32
439 +error: '81 0/mod 3/rm32/ebx 1/imm32' (combine rm32 with imm32 based on subop): missing subop operand
440 
441 :(scenario check_missing_base_operand)
442 % Hide_errors = true;
443 == 0x1
444 81 0/add/subop 0/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 1/imm32
445 +error: '81 0/add/subop 0/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 1/imm32' (combine rm32 with imm32 based on subop): missing base operand
446 
447 :(scenario check_missing_index_operand)
448 % Hide_errors = true;
449 == 0x1
450 81 0/add/subop 0/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 0/base 1/imm32
451 +error: '81 0/add/subop 0/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 0/base 1/imm32' (combine rm32 with imm32 based on subop): missing index operand
452 
453 :(scenario check_missing_base_operand_2)
454 % Hide_errors = true;
455 == 0x1
456 81 0/add/subop 0/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 2/index 3/scale 1/imm32
457 +error: '81 0/add/subop 0/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 2/index 3/scale 1/imm32' (combine rm32 with imm32 based on subop): missing base operand
458 
459 :(scenario check_extra_displacement)
460 % Hide_errors = true;
461 == 0x1
462 89/copy 0/mod/indirect 0/rm32/EAX 1/r32/ECX 4/disp8
463 +error: '89/copy 0/mod/indirect 0/rm32/EAX 1/r32/ECX 4/disp8' (copy r32 to rm32): unexpected disp8 operand
464 
465 :(scenario check_base_operand_not_needed_in_direct_mode)
466 == 0x1
467 81 0/add/subop 3/mod/indirect 4/rm32/use-sib 1/imm32
468 $error: 0
469 
470 //:: similarly handle multi-byte opcodes
471 
472 :(code)
473 void check_operands_0f(const line& inst) {
474   assert(inst.words.at(0).data == "0f");
475   if (SIZE(inst.words) == 1) {
476     raise << "opcode '0f' requires a second opcode\n" << end();
477     return;
478   }
479   word op = preprocess_op(inst.words.at(1));
480   if (!contains_key(Name_0f, op.data)) {
481     raise << "unknown 2-byte opcode '0f " << op.data << "'\n" << end();
482     return;
483   }
484   check_operands_0f(inst, op);
485 }
486 
487 void check_operands_f3(const line& /*unused*/) {
488   raise << "no supported opcodes starting with f3\n" << end();
489 }
490 
491 :(scenario check_missing_disp32_operand)
492 % Hide_errors = true;
493 == 0x1
494 # instruction                     effective address                                                   operand     displacement    immediate
495 # op          subop               mod             rm32          base        index         scale       r32
496 # 1-3 bytes   3 bits              2 bits          3 bits        3 bits      3 bits        2 bits      2 bits      0/1/2/4 bytes   0/1/2/4 bytes
497   0f 84                                                                                                                                             # jmp if ZF to ??
498 +error: '0f 84' (jump disp32 bytes away if equal, if ZF is set): missing disp32 operand
499 
500 :(before "End Globals")
501 map</*op*/string, /*bitvector*/uint8_t> Permitted_operands_0f;
502 :(before "End Init Permitted Operands")
503 //// Class D: just op and disp32
504 //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
505 //  0     0     1      |0       0     0     0
506 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "84", 0x10);
507 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "85", 0x10);
508 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "8c", 0x10);
509 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "8d", 0x10);
510 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "8e", 0x10);
511 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "8f", 0x10);
512 
513 //// Class M: using ModR/M byte
514 //  imm32 imm8  disp32 |disp16  disp8 subop modrm
515 //  0     0     0      |0       0     0     1
516 put_new(Permitted_operands_0f, "af", 0x01);
517 
518 :(code)
519 void check_operands_0f(const line& inst, const word& op) {
520   uint8_t expected_bitvector = get(Permitted_operands_0f, op.data);
521   if (HAS(expected_bitvector, MODRM))
522     check_operands_modrm(inst, op);
523   compare_bitvector_0f(inst, CLEAR(expected_bitvector, MODRM), op);
524 }
525 
526 void compare_bitvector_0f(const line& inst, uint8_t expected, const word& op) {
527   if (all_hex_bytes(inst) && has_operands(inst)) return;  // deliberately programming in raw hex; we'll raise a warning elsewhere
528   uint8_t bitvector = compute_operand_bitvector(inst);
529   if (trace_contains_errors()) return;  // duplicate operand type
530   if (bitvector == expected) return;  // all good with this instruction
531   for (int i = 0;  i < NUM_OPERAND_TYPES;  ++i, bitvector >>= 1, expected >>= 1) {
532 //?     cerr << "comparing " << HEXBYTE << NUM(bitvector) << " with " << NUM(expected) << '\n';
533     if ((bitvector & 0x1) == (expected & 0x1)) continue;  // all good with this operand
534     const string& optype = Operand_type_name.at(i);
535     if ((bitvector & 0x1) > (expected & 0x1))
536       raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name_0f(op) << ": unexpected " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
537     else
538       raise << "'" << to_string(inst) << "'" << maybe_name_0f(op) << ": missing " << optype << " operand\n" << end();
539     // continue giving all errors for a single instruction
540   }
541   // ignore settings in any unused bits
542 }
543 
544 string maybe_name_0f(const word& op) {
545   if (!is_hex_byte(op)) return "";
546   if (!contains_key(Name_0f, op.data)) return "";
547   // strip stuff in parens from the name
548   const string& s = get(Name_0f, op.data);
549   return " ("+s.substr(0, s.find(" ("))+')';
550 }
551 
552 string tolower(const char* s) {
553   ostringstream out;
554   for (/*nada*/;  *s;  ++s)
555     out << static_cast<char>(tolower(*s));
556   return out.str();
557 }
558 
559 #undef HAS
560 #undef SET
561 #undef CLEAR
562 
563 :(before "End Includes")
564 #include<cctype>