From 562a9a52d599d9a05f871404050968a5fd282640 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: elioat Date: Wed, 23 Aug 2023 07:52:19 -0400 Subject: * --- js/games/nluqo.github.io/~bh/hackers.html | 417 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 417 insertions(+) create mode 100644 js/games/nluqo.github.io/~bh/hackers.html (limited to 'js/games/nluqo.github.io/~bh/hackers.html') diff --git a/js/games/nluqo.github.io/~bh/hackers.html b/js/games/nluqo.github.io/~bh/hackers.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2348fd --- /dev/null +++ b/js/games/nluqo.github.io/~bh/hackers.html @@ -0,0 +1,417 @@ + + +Computer Hacking and Ethics + + +

Computer Hacking and Ethics

+Brian Harvey
University of California, Berkeley + +

[A slightly different version of this paper was written for the +``Panel on Hacking'' held by the Association for Computing Machinery in +April, 1985. Thanks to Batya Friedman, Donn Parker, and Carter Sanders for +their comments on early drafts.] + +

+
[Neal Patrick] said he and his friends, who named +themselves the ``414s'' after the Milwaukee area code, did not +intend to do any damage and did not realize they were doing +anything unethical or illegal. In fact, when asked [at a +Congressional subcommittee hearing] at what point he questioned +the ethics of his actions, he answered, ``Once the FBI knocked +on the door.'' + +
-- "`Common Sense' Urged on Computer Break-Ins," +26 Sept 83; Copyright 1983 New York Times News Service +

+ + +

It's no secret that a mature sense of ethics is something a person +develops over time. Parents are supposed to exercise authority over their +children because the children are not expected to know how to make certain +decisions for themselves. We have a juvenile court system separate from the +adult criminal court system because we believe that a young person is not +capable of criminal intent in the same sense that an adult is +capable of it. + +

Within this century, the obvious idea that the ethical sense +of an adolescent isn't the same as that of an adult has become the +focus of scientific research. Psychologists have entered a field +once left to philosophers: moral development. The best-known attempt +to formalize this development is probably the six-stage theory of +Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. Here is his description of +Stage 3, the Interpersonal Concordance or ``Good Boy-Nice Girl'' Orientation: + +

+
Good behavior is that which pleases or helps +others and is approved by them. There is much conformity +to stereotypical images of what is majority or ``natural'' behavior. +Behavior is frequently judged by intention--the judgment ``he +means well'' becomes important for the first time. One earns +approval by being ``nice.'' [Kohlberg, p. 18] +

+ +

Is Neal Patrick at this third stage of moral development? He seems +to judge his own actions in terms of intention. From the perspective +of the stage theory, we can see this as an improvement over ``Our mistake +was to get caught'' or ``What have those computer companies done for +me,'' responses that would be typical of the earlier stages. + +

I don't mean to give too much weight to the specifics of the third stage. +It's not scientifically valid to assign Patrick to a developmental stage on +the basis of one quoted sentence. Also, not every researcher accepts +Kohlberg's stages. But the important point is that Patrick is +roughly at the stage of moral development appropriate to his age. He is +not some new kind of monster spawned by computer technology; he's a kid with +all the strengths and weaknesses we expect from kids in other situations. + +

Compare a bunch of adolescents breaking into a computer system +with another bunch of kids hot-wiring a car for a joyride. The latter +would probably argue, with complete sincerity, that they were doing +no harm, because the owner of the car recovered his property afterward. +They didn't keep or sell it. It's a ``naughty'' prank to borrow someone's +property in that way, but not really serious. + +

These hypothetical car thieves would be wrong, of course, in +making that argument. They might lack the sensitivity needed to give +weight to the victim's feelings of manipulation, of fear, of anger. +They may not understand how the experience of such a random attack +can leave a person feeling a profound loss of order and safety in +the world--the feeling that leads half our population to hail Bernhard +Goetz as a hero to be emulated. Some adolescents don't have the empathy +to see beyond the issue of loss of property. Some may show empathy +in certain situations but not in others. + +

The point is that the computer raises no new issue, ethical or +pragmatic. The password hacker who says ``we aren't hurting anything +by looking around'' is exactly analogous to the joyrider saying ``we +aren't stealing the car permanently.'' + +

(The two cases need not seem analogous to an adolescent. There +may be many computer abusers who would never break into a car for +a joyride, but who don't understand that breaking into a computer +account raises the same ethical issues. But the analogy still holds +for us as adults.) + +

The professional car thief and the teenaged joyrider are both social +problems, but they're different problems. To confuse the two--to +treat the teenager like a career criminal--would be a disastrously +self-fulfilling prophecy. + +

In the context of computer systems, there is a similar dichotomy. There are +some career criminals who steal by electronic means. This small group poses +a large problem for society, but it's not a new one. Thieves are thieves. +Just as banks use special armored cars, they must also develop special +armored computer systems. But the rest of us don't use armored cars for +routine transportation, and we don't need armored computer systems for +routine communication either. (Of course there is a large middle ground +between heavy security and no security at all. My purpose here is not to +decide exactly what security measures are appropriate for any particular +computer system. Instead, I just want to make it clear that, while in this +paper I'm not trying to address the problem of professional criminals, I'm +not trying to deny that there is such a problem either.) + +

There is also a middle ground between the young person who happens to break +unimportant rules in the innocent exercise of intellectual curiosity and the +hardened criminal. Consider the hypothetical case of a young man whose +girlfriend moves to Australia for a year, and so he builds himself a blue +box (a device used to place long distance telephone calls without paying for +them) and uses it to chat with her for an hour every other day. This is not +intellectual curiosity, nor is it a deliberate, long-term choice of a life +of crime. Instead, this hypothetical adolescent, probably normally honest, +has stepped over a line without really noticing it, because his mind is +focused on something else. It would be inappropriate, I think, to pat him +on the head and tell him how clever he is, and equally inappropriate to +throw him in prison. What we must do is call his attention to the +inconsistency between his activities and, most likely, his own moral +standards. + +

Two Models for Moral Direction

+ +

What to do about it? Saying that the problems of computer ethics +are like other ethical problems doesn't solve them. Many approaches +are possible. We are starting to hear among computer experts the +same debates we've heard for centuries among criminologists: prevention, +deterrence, retribution, cure? + +

Among all the possible approaches, it may be instructive to consider +two strongly opposed ones: first, control of the technology, and second, +moral training. As examples of these approaches, compare the registration +of automobiles with instruction in karate. + +

Automobile registration is certainly a good idea in helping the +police control professional crime. As thieves have learned to steal +cars for their parts, rather than to sell whole, the technology of +registration has had to grow more sophisticated: we now see serial +numbers on each major component, not just on the door frame. But +registration doesn't help against joyriders. + +

Other technological security measures can help. Steering column +locks have made joyriding harder, but not impossible. Many adolescents +are expert locksmiths, not because they're dishonest but because locks +and keys pose a technical challenge much like that of passwords in +a computer system. Also, increased security has made the consequences +of juvenile car theft more serious, because the easiest way to defeat +a steering column lock is to destroy it by brute force. + +

The example of karate instruction shows a very different approach +to the problem of adolescent moral limitations. Instead of using +technology to limit the power of young people, this second approach +deliberately empowers them. Skill in karate is a deadly weapon; to +give that weapon to a young person is an affirmation of trust rather +than suspicion. + +

Why do karate classes for kids work? Why don't they lead to +an epidemic of juvenile murders? This paper can't present a definitive +answer. But I want to suggest some possibilities and use them to draw +analogies for computer education. + +

One probable reason is that every person responds to his or her +situation. If I know you're trusting me with something important, +I'll try to live up to your trust. If I sense that you consider me +untrustworthy, I may decide that I might as well live up to your low +expectations. + +

Another vital reason, though, is that the technical instruction +in karate techniques is part of a larger initiation into a certain +culture and its rules. Karate schools don't begin by telling novices, +``Here's how to kill someone.'' They begin with simple, less dangerous +techniques; the criteria for advancement include control and +self-discipline as well as knowledge of particular moves. Instructors +emphasize that karate is an art that should not be abused. Students learn +to demonstrate punches and kicks without injury by stopping just short of +contact with the opponent's body. + +

Empowerment in Computer Education

+ +

How can we teach young computer enthusiasts to be responsible +members of the electronic community, without defining them as criminals? +The analogy of karate instruction suggests that the answer is to combine +ethical training with real empowerment. To turn this broad slogan +into a practical program requires several changes in our approach +to educational computing and to computing in general. + +

+
Growth, like any ongoing function, requires adequate +objects in the environment to meet the needs and capacities +of the growing child, boy, youth, and young man, until he +can better choose and make his own environment. It is not +a ``psychological'' question of poor influences and bad attitudes, +but an objective question of real opportunities for worthwhile +experience.... Thwarted, or starved, in the important objects +proper to young capacities, the boys and young men naturally +find or invent deviant objects for themselves; this is the +beautiful shaping power of our human nature. Their choices +and inventions are rarely charming, usually stupid, and often +disastrous; we cannot expect average kids to deviate with +genius. [Goodman, pp. 12-13] +

+ +

Paul Goodman was discussing traditional juvenile delinquents, not +password hackers. But the problem is fundamentally the same. How +can we provide a worthwhile culture for young computer enthusiasts +to grow into? + +

1. Serious adult models. In karate instruction, discipline +is not only for novices. The adult instructors follow the same discipline +themselves. The ethical principles taught to beginners are taken +seriously in the adult community. As a result, young students don't +see the discipline of karate as an arbitrary imposition on them; they +see it as part of what it means to be a full member of the community. + +

In the computer culture, adults rarely take seriously the idea of belonging +to a community. The social ideal is the self-serving entrepreneur. Our +heros are the ones who become millionaires by doing a slick marketing job on +yet another spreadsheet program. (When my high school programming students +discovered that I actually knew how to program a computer, many of them +decided I was crazy. Why should anyone want to teach when he could make +more money programming?) In this context, why should any young person +listen to our moral lecturing? + +

Fundamentally what is needed is personal action by each individual +computer professional. But we can act as a society to +encourage this individual commitment. We can urge our colleagues +to devote part of their time to pro bono publico activities, like +other professionals. We can give special public recognition to computer +professionals who choose a life of disinterested public service over +the quest for personal gain. Some corporations allow their employees +paid sabbatical leave for public service work; we should encourage +this policy. + +

2. Access to real power. Another important part of the karate +analogy is that there are not two kinds of karate, one for adults +and one for kids. What beginners learn may be elementary, but it's +a start down the same road traveled by experts. The community into +which young karate students are welcomed is the real, adult community. +That's not how things work with computers. How many adult computer +scientists put up with CP/M, BASIC, and floppy disks? The technology +available to most young people is not a simpler version of what experts +use; it's a completely separate, more arcane, fundamentally less powerful +medium. That medium--the programming languages, the file storage, +the editing tools, and so on--is simply inadequate to challenging +intellectual work. + +

The community of computer professionals has come to take for +granted easy access to electronic communication with colleagues anywhere +in the world. Those of us lucky enough to be on the Arpanet have +instantaneous communication supported by taxpayers. Even the less +fortunate who communicate over dialup networks like uucp, though, +have the cost of their mail supported by computing facilities other +than their own; the general agreement among even competing private +businesses to forward one another's mail is a remarkable example of +disinterested cooperation. Some of this mail traffic is serious business. +But some of it is also ``junk mail'' like sf-lovers (for science fiction +enthusiasts) and human-nets. Is it surprising that young computer +enthusiasts want a slice of the pie too? + +

Adolescents are excluded not only from access to equipment but +also from access to ideas. The password hackers' preoccupation with +magic words and magic numbers is harmful to themselves as well as +to the rest of us; it's an intellectual dead end that gives them no +real insight into computer science. They learn a bag of isolated +tricks rather than powerful ideas that extend to solving other kinds +of problems. Instead of just telling them what's forbidden, we would +do better to show them the path to our own understanding of algorithms, +formal theory of computation, and so on. We all know you can't program +well in BASIC; why do we allow manufacturers to inflict it on children? + +

To take positive steps toward this goal requires action on two fronts, +access to technology and access to ideas. The latter requires training high +school teachers who are themselves qualified computer programmers. In the +long run, this means paying teachers salaries competitive with industry +standards. That's a matter for government action. Another approach may be +to promote active cooperation between university computer science +departments and high schools. Perhaps college faculty and graduate students +could contribute some of their time to the local high schools. (This is not +a new idea; outside experts are donating time to secondary schools to help +teach other areas of science. Such partnership brings its own problems, +because both the goals and the techniques of college teaching are different +from those of high school teaching. Still, this collaboration has sometimes +been fruitful.) + +

The problem of access to equipment is economically more difficult, +but it's getting easier. The availability of 32-bit microprocessors +means that serious computational power should be affordable in the +near future. Equipment manufacturers should +take the high school market seriously, as an investment in future +technical workers. Another approach is for interested educators to +establish regional computing centers for adolescents, not part of +a particular school, where kids can come on their own time. Economies +of scale may allow such centers to provide state-of-the-art equipment +that a single high school couldn't justify economically. + +

3. Apprenticeship: challenging problems and access to expertise. +The karate student is given not only access to a body of knowledge, +but also the personal attention of a master in the field. The instructor +is responsible for the moral development of his students as well as +their technical skill. He steers them in the direction of challenges +appropriate to each one's progress, and his own expertise is available +to help the learner. + +

For many years, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ran a computer +system with no passwords and no file protection at all. (It was pressure +from their Defense Department funding agency, not internal needs, that +forced them to implement a password scheme.) Even now, the laboratory has a +liberal ``tourist'' policy: anyone can have an account, provided that +someone at the laboratory is willing to be his or her mentor. The +philosophy behind this policy is that most ``malicious'' computer abuse is +the result of ignorance, misunderstanding, and thoughtlessness, rather than +truly malign intent. With a particular person responsible for each new +user, tourists learn to share the values of the community. They are taught +that the vulnerability of MIT's system is a price researchers pay willingly +for the open exchange of information that that vulnerability allows. +Treated as legitimate members of the community, even young tourists quickly +learn to act responsibly toward the group. + +

Not every computer facility can be expected to share the vision +of MIT-AI. Certainly the computers that control the missiles and +the banking transactions should not be so open to visitors. But a +typical large company has several computers, not all equally sensitive. +Many could allow access to young people in their communities in the +evenings, especially if some of their professional staff members are +interested in serving as volunteer mentors. It's the mentor/apprentice +relationship that makes all the difference. Just giving a kid an +account on your machine may be asking for trouble, but making a friend +of the kid is a good investment. + +

In particular, universities often treat their undergraduate student users +like irresponsible children. Undergraduates are generally second-class +citizens, with limited access to the school's computing resources, including +human resources (faculty). Universities should allow undergraduates to +function as true members of serious research teams, as graduate students +do. This policy would provide both access to faculty mentors and +challenging, useful tasks. + +

For secondary schools, the issue is partly one of curriculum. Too many +teenagers are taught (not only in the schools but also in the magazines) +that true computer expertise means knowing what number to POKE +into what address in order to change the color of the screen on some brand +of microcomputer. Such learning is not intellectually challenging. It does +not lead to a feeling of fruitful apprenticeship. + +

4. A safe arena for moral experimentation. The +beginning karate student might be afraid to try his or her skill with a +fellow student, lest he or she injure or be injured. But it's safe to fight +a match with a black belt instructor. ``I won't hurt you,'' says the +instructor, ``and I won't let you hurt me.'' To allow for safe sparring +between students, classes begin with half-speed motions and no body contact +allowed. Later they may progress to rules that allow light body contact but +no contact to the opponent's head. These rules allow students to feel safe +as they experiment and develop their skills. + +

Young people have a similar need for safety in moral experimentation. +One of the reasons for the appeal of role-playing games like Dungeons +and Dragons is that a player can say ``I'm going to be a thief,'' or +``I'm going to be evil,'' trying on these roles without actually harming +anyone. Similarly, a good school should be a place where students +feel safe, a kind of ``ethics laboratory.'' + +

Neal Patrick's first exposure to an ethical dilemma should not +have involved the FBI. He should have confronted the issue of information +privacy while using a computer system in his school. He could have +learned how his antisocial acts hurt and angered the legitimate users +of the system, without risking really serious trouble for himself +or for anyone else. For one thing, it's hard for a young person to +understand the chain of reasoning from the abstract corporate owner +of a computer system to the actual human beings whose lives are affected +when that system breaks down. It's easier to understand the issues +when the users are one's friends and classmates, and the social effects +of malicious password hacking are immediately apparent. + +

(None of this is meant to excuse Patrick or the other 414s. +Neither ignorance of the law nor misunderstanding the ethical issues +is accepted in our culture as an excuse for lawbreaking. But I am not +writing for a court of law meeting to settle Patrick's guilt or innocence. +The question for us is how, as a society, we can act to make the next +generation of teenagers less likely to paint themselves into this +particular corner.) + +

As a practical matter, what's needed to build an ethics laboratory +for computing students has already been recommended in another context: +adequate computing power to support a user community, as opposed to +a bunch of isolated, independent microcomputer users. Whether this +means timesharing or a network of personal computers with a shared +file server is a technical question beyond the scope of this paper. +But sharing is essential. The ethical issues of a living community +don't arise in the context of isolated individuals using microcomputers +separately with no communication among them. (If we do not fill this need, +we leave a void that in practice is filled by ``pirate'' bulletin boards +that build a sort of outlaw community around illegal computing activities.) + +

Appendix A: What is a Hacker?

+ +

Appendix B: A Case Study

+ +

References

+ +

Goodman, Paul. Growing Up Absurd. New York: Random House, 1960. + +

Kohlberg, Lawrence. Essays on Moral Development, volume 1: The +Philosophy of Moral Development. New York: Harper & Row, 1981. + + + +

+www.cs.berkeley.edu/~bh +

+ + -- cgit 1.4.1-2-gfad0